Psychedelic Science in India

Current and Past Perspectives

Image Courtesy: Screenshot from a video by Raja Chowdhary “Soma: The psychedelic origins of religious experience”

The current status of psychedelic drug use in India

To look into the current pattern of use of psychedelics in India and user subjective experiences, an online survey was carried out over 6 months from August 15, 2020, where it was found that among 49 participants, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) (93.9%, n = 46) remained popular among the users, followed by Psilocybin mushrooms (75.5%, n = 37) and N, N-dimethyltryptamine (36.7%, n = 18). The majority have stated LSD as the first psychedelic they have used, while the rest claimed psilocybin mushrooms as their first psychedelic. The mean age at the first psychedelic use was 22.42 ± (2.99). 75.5% (n = 37) showed curiosity about the nature of the substance before using it. Participants who seemed to try psychedelics for the first time stated personality development 38.7% (n = 19), just out of curiosity 36.7% (n = 18), and meditation/spiritual reasons 30.6% (n = 15) as their reasons for consumption, out of which majority went through a positive psychedelic experience. 38.8% of the participants preferred to take them as a group in nature, followed by Alone in nature (26.5%), Parties (14.3%), Alone - indoors (12.2%), and Group – Indoors (8.16%). The participants stated having positive mystical experiences related to the experience of amazement, the sense that the experience cannot be described adequately in words, the sense of awe or awesomeness, the feelings of joy, the experience of ecstasy, the experience of oneness or unity with the objects and/or persons perceived in your surroundings, and certainty of encounter with ultimate reality. On the other hand, challenging experiences such as ‘feeling my heart beating’, ‘I felt like crying’, ‘Feeling of isolation from people and things’, ‘I had the profound experience of my own death’, and ‘I had the feeling something horrible would happen’ were also significant. 

The U.S. "War On Drugs" campaign, which began in the 1980s, sought to promote a zero-tolerance approach to drug use which aimed to mitigate drug-related crime, addiction, and health problems by enforcing harsh penalties for drug offenses. Many countries around the world, including India also adopted the campaign. India's current drug laws are based on the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS), which was enacted in 1985 and prohibits the production, sale and consumption of cannabis. Similarly, the spiritual and medicinal use of psychedelics such as ayahuasca, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms have always been prevalent and accepted in India for centuries until the enactment of NDPS in 1985.

A recent Review confirmed a list of 36 psychoactive species based on published papers on the genera Amanita, Copelandia, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Panaeolus and Psilocybe in India, that indicated the awareness of India’s tribal cultures about psychoactive mushrooms for reasons ranging from the widespread distribution of entheogenic mushrooms in India and the reproduction of many species in the manure of four-legged ruminants and manured soil habitats. Contemporary knowledge regarding entheogenic species is indicated by the consumption of wild macrofungal species by the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya, where cultures out of necessity built a source of practical knowledge around the edibility of those mushrooms. One of the most famous archaeological sites of India, Khajuraho, is well-known for its exquisite statues; some of the thresholds of sanctuaries also prominently display Mushroom forms. Many temples of the Western group (Hindu), as well as other temples of the area, particularly the shrines of Shantinath and the Jain temples, prominently display mushrooms at the very centre of the threshold to the sanctum.

While in Sanskrit language for mushrooms exist such as ―kavak‖ and ―paalaghna‖, they are most commonly referred to metaphorically as chattra (छत्र in Sanskrit), which literally means ―umbrella‖ and ―parasol‖. 'Gomayachchhatra' (alternative Gomayacchatra) (गोमयच्छत्र) is another term for 'fungus,' and composed of 'gomaya' meaning cow- dung, and chhatra as parasol; such a fungus that grows in cow-dung may be one containing psilocybin, given the coprophilic nature of these species.

Soma, considered to be the divine and sacred plant of the Vedas, has the characteristics of a quintessential entheogen, exemplified in the scriptural praises of its ability to produce rapturous experiences. Wasson proposed Soma to have originally been a mushroom (Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam.) and analysed the substance from the Vedas to support his hypothesis. If A. muscaria was the original Soma, its demise was inevitable because of its limited ecological availability, and the inability to cultivate A. muscaria. This lack of Soma led to a search for substitutes. Excavations of early (1600 BCE) Aryan settlements in the Karakum desert in Turkmenistan at the Gonur Tepe archaeological site found sacred vessels with residues identified as Ephedra, Cannabis and poppy (Ephedra sinica Stapf, Cannabis sativa L., Papaver somniferum L.). While one can question whether these were used as entheogens or reflect environmental sources, this unlikely combination suggests the Aryans could have used a variety of substitutes for ritualistic or other purposes.  

According to the Rigveda and many ancient sages and Yoga practitioners or gurus in India, it is also stated that Soma can also be produced within and induce psychedelic experiences without using any external substances by practising yogic techniques that would involve ‘pranayama’( breathwork), ‘Hatha Yoga postures’, ‘Dhyana/deep meditation’, and 'Kriya Yoga'. 

Dr Gokul Raj presented an in-depth analysis of medical research in 2022 into the therapeutic benefit of psilocybin, lending an academically and professionally credible lens to the potential for the adoption of psychedelic science as a legitimate area of focus for the scientific community at some point in India’s future, where an intersection of psychedelic medicine with traditional Indian yogic and Ayurvedic principles, that focuses on the wellness of mind and body through plant medicine and a healthy diet. This approach also empowers the Indian framework integration of psychedelics into its broader culture, rather than blindly following the Western framework.  The stigma around fungi appears to be transitioning in India as the research endeavours and initiatives of various organizations such as the Shroom Sabha, Fungi Foundation, Somaa.org and Psychedelic Society of India harbour efforts to document and archive the priceless ethnomycological legacy spread across India while the window of opportunity is still open, as are a rising number of other scientists and healthcare professionals like Vidita Vaidya, chairperson of biological sciences at Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, and an Infosys Prize winner 2022 of life sciences and Rhea Gandhi a psychotherapist all of whom are beginning to stress upon the struggles and potential use of psychedelics for Indian population. 

Other Indian mycopreneurs such as “M” of Terra myco and Harikrishnan MT (@Indiantoadstool on Instagram),  are leading wild mushroom identification trips into the dense tropical forests, while a ‘mushroom chef masterclass’ by Goa-based OG Mushroom incorporated some of the wild fungi found by the group – including the massive Pleurotus giganteous specimen. Nuvedo Co-founder Jashid Hameed also stated his goals for the startup he founded to be the #1 supplier of mushroom supplements in India by 2025. 

Other psychedelic-like plants like ‘bhang’(Cannabis), ‘Dhatura’, ‘Sarpagandha’ (Rauvolfia serpentina),’Amanita Muscaria’(Fly Agaric mushroom),’ Nutmeg’ (Myristica Fragrans)‘in India that are used in various religious, and spiritual practices and medicinal practices, can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where they were regarded as sacred substances to explore the realms of consciousness and connect with the divine power and require further exploration. India could adopt a more progressive approach to drug policy that includes decriminalizing drug use, legalizing cannabis for medical and recreational use, regulating psychedelics for therapeutic purposes, investing in harm reduction programs, and ending the death penalty for drug offences.

By Sakshi Upadhyay